UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON INDEPENDENT GUARANTEES AND STAND-BY LETTERS OF CREDIT

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 C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION

Article 1. Scope of application

Article 2. Undertaking

Article 3. Independence of undertaking

Article 4. Internationality of undertaking

CHAPTER II. INTERPRETATION

Article 5. Principles of interpretation

Article 6. Definitions

CHAPTER III. FORM AND CONTENT OF UNDERTAKING

Article 7. Issuance, form and irrevocability of undertaking

Article 8. Amendment

Article 9. Transfer of beneficiary's right to demand payment

Article 10. Assignment of proceeds

Article 11. Cessation of right to demand payment

Article 12. Expiry

CHAPTER IV. RIGHTS, OBLIGATIONS AND DEFENCES

Article 13. Determination of rights and obligations

Article 14. Standard of conduct and liability of guarantor/issuer

Article 15. Demand

Article 16. Examination of demand and accompanying documents

Article 17. Payment

Article 18. Set-off

Article 19. Exception to payment obligation

CHAPTER V. PROVISIONAL COURT MEASURES

Article 20. Provisional court measures

CHAPTER VI. CONFLICT OF LAWS

Article 21. Choice of applicable law

Article 22. Determination of applicable law

CHAPTER VII. FINAL CLAUSES

Article 23. Depositary

Article 24. Signature, ratification, acceptance, approval, accession

Article 25. Application to territorial units

Article 26. Effect of declaration

Article 27. Reservations

Article 28. Entry into force

Article 29. Denunciation

EXPLANATORY NOTE BY THE UNCITRAL SECRETARIAT ON THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON INDEPENDENT GUARANTEES AND STAND-BY LETTERS OF CREDIT

INTRODUCTION

I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION

A. Types of instruments covered

B. Coverage of counter-guarantees and confirmations

C. Instruments outside the scope of the Convention

D. Definition of "independence"

E. "Documentary" character of undertakings covered

F. Definition of internationality

G. Connecting factors for application of the Convention

II. INTERPRETATION

III. FORM AND CONTENT OF UNDERTAKING

A. Issuance

B. Amendment

C. Transfer and assignment

D. Cessation of right to demand payment

E. Expiry

IV. RIGHTS, OBLIGATIONS AND DEFENCES

A. Determination of rights and obligations

V. PRESENTATION OF DEMAND AND PAYMENT

A. Demand by beneficiary

B. Examination of demand and payment

C. Fraudulent or abusive demands for payment

D. Provisional court measures

VI. CONFLICT OF LAWS

VII. FINAL CLAUSES

UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON INDEPENDENT GUARANTEES AND STAND-BY LETTERS OF CREDIT

CHAPTER I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION

Article 1. Scope of application

(1) This Convention applies to an international undertaking referred to in article 2:

(a) If the place of business of the guarantor/issuer at which the undertaking is issued is in a Contracting State, or

(b) If the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State,

unless the undertaking excludes the application of the Convention.

(2) This Convention applies also to an international letter of credit not falling within article 2 if it expressly states that it is subject to this Convention.

(3) The provisions of articles 21 and 22 apply to international undertakings referred to in article 2 independently of paragraph (1) of this article.

Article 2. Undertaking

(1) For the purposes of this Convention, an undertaking is an independent commitment, known in international practice as an independent guarantee or as a stand-by letter of credit, given by a bank or other institution or person ("guarantor/issuer") to pay to the beneficiary a certain or determinable amount upon simple demand or upon demand accompanied by other documents, in conformity with the terms and any documentary conditions of the undertaking, indicating, or from which it is to be inferred, that payment is due because of a default in the performance of an obligation, or because of another contingency, or for money borrowed or advanced, or on account of any mature indebtedness undertaken by the principal/applicant or another person.

(2) The undertaking may be given:

(a) At the request or on the instruction of the customer ("principal/applicant") of the guarantor/issuer;

(b) On the instruction of another bank, institution or person ("instructing party") that acts at the request of the customer ("principal/applicant") of that instructing party; or

(c) On behalf of the guarantor/issuer itself.

(3) Payment may be stipulated in the undertaking to be made in any form, including:

(a) Payment in a specified currency or unit of account;

(b) Acceptance of a bill of exchange (draft);

(c) Payment on a deferred basis;

(d) Supply of a specified item of value.

(4) The undertaking may stipulate that the guarantor/issuer itself is the beneficiary when acting in favour of another person.

Article 3. Independence of undertaking

For the purposes of this Convention, an undertaking is independent where the guarantor/issuer's obligation to the beneficiary is not:

(a) Dependent upon the existence or validity of any underlying transaction, or upon any other undertaking (including stand-by letters of credit or independent guarantees to which confirmations or counter-guarantees relate); or

(b) Subject to any term or condition not appearing in the undertaking, or to any future, uncertain act or event except presentation of documents or another such act or event within a guarantor/issuer's sphere of operations.

Article 4. Internationality of undertaking
(1) An undertaking is international if the places of business, as specified in the undertaking, of any two of the following persons are in different States: guarantor/issuer, beneficiary, principal/applicant, instructing party, confirmer.

(2) For the purposes of the preceding paragraph:

(a) If the undertaking lists more than one place of business for a given person, the relevant place of business is that which has the closest relationship to the undertaking;

(b) If the undertaking does not specify a place of business for a given person but specifies its habitual residence, that residence is relevant for determining the international character of the undertaking.

CHAPTER II. INTERPRETATION

Article 5. Principles of interpretation

In the interpretation of this Convention, regard is to be had to its international character and to the need to promote uniformity in its application and the observance of good faith in the international practice of independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit.

Article 6. Definitions

For the purposes of this Convention and unless otherwise indicated in a provision of this Convention or required by the context:

(a) "Undertaking" includes "counter-guarantee" and "confirmation of an undertaking";

(b) "Guarantor/issuer" includes "counter-guarantor" and "confirmer";

(c) "Counter-guarantee" means an undertaking given to the guarantor/issuer of another undertaking by its instructing party and providing for payment upon simple demand or upon demand accompanied by other documents, in conformity with the terms and any documentary conditions of the undertaking, indicating, or from which it is to be inferred, that payment under that other undertaking has been demanded from, or made by, the person issuing that other undertaking;

(d) "Counter-guarantor" means the person issuing a counter-guarantee;

(e) "Confirmation" of an undertaking means an undertaking added to that of the guarantor/issuer, and authorized by the guarantor/issuer, providing the beneficiary with the option of demanding payment from the confirmer instead of from the guarantor/issuer, upon simple demand or upon demand accompanied by other documents, in conformity with the terms and any documentary conditions of the confirmed undertaking, without prejudice to the beneficiary's right to demand payment from the guarantor/issuer;

(f) "Confirmer" means the person adding a confirmation to an undertaking;

(g) "Document" means a communication made in a form that provides a complete record thereof.

CHAPTER III. FORM AND CONTENT OF UNDERTAKING

Article 7. Issuance, form and irrevocability of undertaking

(1) Issuance of an undertaking occurs when and where the undertaking leaves the sphere of control of the guarantor/issuer concerned.

(2) An undertaking may be issued in any form which preserves a complete record of the text of the undertaking and provides authentication of its source by generally accepted means or by a procedure agreed upon by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary.

(3) From the time of issuance of an undertaking, a demand for payment may be made in accordance with the terms and conditions of the undertaking, unless the undertaking stipulates a different time.

(4) An undertaking is irrevocable upon issuance, unless it stipulates that it is revocable.

Article 8. Amendment

(1) An undertaking may not be amended except in the form stipulated in the undertaking or, failing such stipulation, in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7.

(2) Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, an undertaking is amended upon issuance of the amendment if the amendment has previously been authorized by the beneficiary.

(3) Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, where any amendment has not previously been authorized by the beneficiary, the undertaking is amended only when the guarantor/issuer receives a notice of acceptance of the amendment by the beneficiary in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7.

(4) An amendment of an undertaking has no effect on the rights and obligations of the principal/applicant (or an instructing party) or of a confirmer of the undertaking unless such person consents to the amendment.

Article 9. Transfer of beneficiary's right to demand payment

(1) The beneficiary's right to demand payment may be transferred only if authorized in the undertaking, and only to the extent and in the manner authorized in the undertaking.

(2) If an undertaking is designated as transferable without specifying whether or not the consent of the guarantor/issuer or another authorized person is required for the actual transfer, neither the guarantor/issuer nor any other authorized person is obliged to effect the transfer except to the extent and in the manner expressly consented to by it.

Article 10. Assignment of proceeds

(1) Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, the beneficiary may assign to another person any proceeds to which it may be, or may become, entitled under the undertaking.

(2) If the guarantor/issuer or another person obliged to effect payment has received a notice originating from the beneficiary, in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7, of the beneficiary's irrevocable assignment, payment to the assignee discharges the obligor, to the extent of its payment, from its liability under the undertaking.

Article 11. Cessation of right to demand payment

(1) The right of the beneficiary to demand payment under the undertaking ceases when:

(a) The guarantor/issuer has received a statement by the beneficiary of release from liability in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7;

(b) The beneficiary and the guarantor/issuer have agreed on the termination of the undertaking in the form stipulated in the undertaking or, failing such stipulation, in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7;

(c) The amount available under the undertaking has been paid, unless the undertaking provides for the automatic renewal or for an automatic increase of the amount available or otherwise provides for continuation of the undertaking;

(d) The validity period of the undertaking expires in accordance with the provisions of article 12.

(2) The undertaking may stipulate, or the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary may agree elsewhere, that return of the document embodying the undertaking to the guarantor/issuer, or a procedure functionally equivalent to the return of the document in the case of the issuance of the undertaking in non-paper form, is required for the cessation of the right to demand payment, either alone or in conjunction with one of the events referred to in subparagraphs (a) and (b) of paragraph (1) of this article. However, in no case shall retention of any such document by the beneficiary after the right to demand payment ceases in accordance with subparagraph (c) or (d) of paragraph (1) of this article preserve any rights of the beneficiary under the undertaking.

Article 12. Expiry

The validity period of the undertaking expires:

(a) At the expiry date, which may be a specified calendar date or the last day of a fixed period of time stipulated in the undertaking, provided that, if the expiry date is not a business day at the place of business of the guarantor/issuer at which the undertaking is issued, or of another person or at another place stipulated in the undertaking for presentation of the demand for payment, expiry occurs on the first business day which follows;

(b) If expiry depends according to the undertaking on the occurrence of an act or event not within the guarantor/issuer's sphere of operations, when the guarantor/issuer is advised that the act or event has occurred by presentation of the document specified for that purpose in the undertaking or, if no such document is specified, of a certification by the beneficiary of the occurrence of the act or event;

(c) If the undertaking does not state an expiry date, or if the act or event on which expiry is stated to depend has not yet been established by presentation of the required document and an expiry date has not been stated in addition, when six years have elapsed from the date of issuance of the undertaking.

CHAPTER IV. RIGHTS, OBLIGATIONS AND DEFENCES

Article 13. Determination of rights and obligations

(1) The rights and obligations of the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary arising from the undertaking are determined by the terms and conditions set forth in the undertaking, including any rules, general conditions or usages specifically referred to therein, and by the provisions of this Convention.

(2) In interpreting terms and conditions of the undertaking and in settling questions that are not addressed by the terms and conditions of the undertaking or by the provisions of this Convention, regard shall be had to generally accepted international rules and usages of independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit practice.

Article 14. Standard of conduct and liability of guarantor/issuer

(1) In discharging its obligations under the undertaking and this Convention, the guarantor/issuer shall act in good faith and exercise reasonable care having due regard to generally accepted standards of international practice of independent guarantees or stand-by letters of credit.

(2) A guarantor/issuer may not be exempted from liability for its failure to act in good faith or for any grossly negligent conduct.

Article 15. Demand

(1) Any demand for payment under the undertaking shall be made in a form referred to in paragraph (2) of article 7 and in conformity with the terms and conditions of the undertaking.

(2) Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking, the demand and any certification or other document required by the undertaking shall be presented, within the time that a demand for payment may be made, to the guarantor/issuer at the place where the undertaking was issued.

(3) The beneficiary, when demanding payment, is deemed to certify that the demand is not in bad faith and that none of the elements referred to in subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph (1) of article 19 are present.

Article 16. Examination of demand and accompanying documents

(1) The guarantor/issuer shall examine the demand and any accompanying documents in accordance with the standard of conduct referred to in paragraph (1) of article 14. In determining whether documents are in facial conformity with the terms and conditions of the undertaking, and are consistent with one another, the guarantor/issuer shall have due regard to the applicable international standard of independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit practice.

(2) Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, the guarantor/issuer shall have reasonable time, but not more than seven business days following the day of receipt of the demand and any accompanying documents, in which to:

(a) Examine the demand and any accompanying documents;

(b) Decide whether or not to pay;

(c) If the decision is not to pay, issue notice thereof to the beneficiary.

The notice referred to in subparagraph (c) above shall, unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, be made by teletransmission or, if that is not possible, by other expeditious means and indicate the reason for the decision not to pay.

Article 17. Payment

(1) Subject to article 19, the guarantor/issuer shall pay against a demand made in accordance with the provisions of article 15. Following a determination that a demand for payment so conforms, payment shall be made promptly, unless the undertaking stipulates payment on a deferred basis, in which case payment shall be made at the stipulated time.

(2) Any payment against a demand that is not in accordance with the provisions of article 15 does not prejudice the rights of the principal/applicant.

Article 18. Set-off

Unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary, the guarantor/issuer may discharge the payment obligation under the undertaking by availing itself of a right of set-off, except with any claim assigned to it by the principal/applicant or the instructing party.

Article 19. Exception to payment obligation

(1) If it is manifest and clear that:

(a) Any document is not genuine or has been falsified;

(b) No payment is due on the basis asserted in the demand and the supporting documents; or

(c) Judging by the type and purpose of the undertaking, the demand has no conceivable basis,

the guarantor/issuer, acting in good faith, has a right, as against the beneficiary, to withhold payment.

(2) For the purposes of subparagraph (c) of paragraph (1) of this article, the following are types of situations in which a demand has no conceivable basis:

(a) The contingency or risk against which the undertaking was designed to secure the beneficiary has undoubtedly not materialized;

(b) The underlying obligation of the principal/applicant has been declared invalid by a court or arbitral tribunal, unless the undertaking indicates that such contingency falls within the risk to be covered by the undertaking;

(c) The underlying obligation has undoubtedly been fulfilled to the satisfaction of the beneficiary;

(d) Fulfilment of the underlying obligation has clearly been prevented by wilful misconduct of the beneficiary;

(e) In the case of a demand under a counter-guarantee, the beneficiary of the counter-guarantee has made payment in bad faith as guarantor/issuer of the undertaking to which the counter-guarantee relates.

(3) In the circumstances set out in subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph (1) of this article, the principal/applicant is entitled to provisional court measures in accordance with article 20.

CHAPTER V. PROVISIONAL COURT MEASURES

Article 20. Provisional court measures

(1) Where, on an application by the principal/applicant or the instructing party, it is shown that there is a high probability that, with regard to a demand made, or expected to be made, by the beneficiary, one of the circumstances referred to in subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph (1) of article 19 is present, the court, on the basis of immediately available strong evidence, may:

(a) Issue a provisional order to the effect that the beneficiary does not receive payment, including an order that the guarantor/issuer hold the amount of the undertaking, or

(b) Issue a provisional order to the effect that the proceeds of the undertaking paid to the beneficiary are blocked, taking into account whether in the absence of such an order the principal/applicant would be likely to suffer serious harm.

(2) The court, when issuing a provisional order referred to in paragraph (1) of this article, may require the person applying therefor to furnish such form of security as the court deems appropriate.

(3) The court may not issue a provisional order of the kind referred to in paragraph (1) of this article based on any objection to payment other than those referred to in subparagraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph (1) of article 19, or use of the undertaking for a criminal purpose.

CHAPTER VI. CONFLICT OF LAWS

Article 21. Choice of applicable law

The undertaking is governed by the law the choice of which is:

(a) Stipulated in the undertaking or demonstrated by the terms and conditions of the undertaking; or

(b) Agreed elsewhere by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary.

Article 22. Determination of applicable law

Failing a choice of law in accordance with article 21, the undertaking is governed by the law of the State where the guarantor/issuer has that place of business at which the undertaking was issued.

CHAPTER VII. FINAL CLAUSES

Article 23. Depositary

The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the depositary of this Convention.

Article 24. Signature, ratification, acceptance, approval, accession

(1) This Convention is open for signature by all States at the Headquarters of the United Nations, New York, until 11 December 1997.

(2) This Convention is subject to ratification, acceptance or approval by the signatory States.

(3) This Convention is open to accession by all States which are not signatory States as from the date it is open for signature.

(4) Instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval and accession are to be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article 25. Application to territorial units

(1) If a State has two or more territorial units in which different systems of law are applicable in relation to the matters dealt with in this Convention, it may, at the time of signature, ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, declare that this Convention is to extend to all its territorial units or only one or more of them, and may at any time substitute another declaration for its earlier declaration.

(2) These declarations are to state expressly the territorial units to which the Convention extends.

(3) If, by virtue of a declaration under this article, this Convention does not extend to all territorial units of a State and the place of business of the guarantor/issuer or of the beneficiary is located in a territorial unit to which the Convention does not extend, this place of business is considered not to be in a Contracting State.

(4) If a State makes no declaration under paragraph (1) of this article, the Convention is to extend to all territorial units of that State.

Article 26. Effect of declaration

(1) Declarations made under article 25 at the time of signature are subject to confirmation upon ratification, acceptance or approval.

(2) Declarations and confirmations of declarations are to be in writing and to be formally notified to the depositary.

(3) A declaration takes effect simultaneously with the entry into force of this Convention in respect of the State concerned. However, a declaration of which the depositary receives formal notification after such entry into force takes effect on the first day of the month following the expiration of six months after the date of its receipt by the depositary.

(4) Any State which makes a declaration under article 25 may withdraw it at any time by a formal notification in writing addressed to the depositary. Such withdrawal takes effect on the first day of the month following the expiration of six months after the date of the receipt of the notification of the depositary.

Article 27. Reservations

No reservations may be made to this Convention.

Article 28. Entry into force

(1) This Convention enters into force on the first day of the month following the expiration of one year from the date of the deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

(2) For each State which becomes a Contracting State to this Convention after the date of the deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, this Convention enters into force on the first day of the month following the expiration of one year after the date of the deposit of the appropriate instrument on behalf of that State.

(3) This Convention applies only to undertakings issued on or after the date when the Convention enters into force in respect of the Contracting State referred to in subparagraph (a) or the Contracting State referred to in subparagraph (b) of paragraph (1) of article 1.

Article 29. Denunciation

(1) A Contracting State may denounce this Convention at any time by means of a notification in writing addressed to the depositary.

(2) The denunciation takes effect on the first day of the month following the expiration of one year after the notification is received by the depositary. Where a longer period is specified in the notification, the denunciation takes effect upon the expiration of such longer period after the notification is received by the depositary.

DONE at New York, this eleventh day of December one thousand nine hundred and ninety-five, in a single original, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned plenipotentiaries, being duly authorized by their respective Governments, have signed the present Convention.

* * *

Explanatory note by the UNCITRAL secretariat on the
United Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of Credit*

Introduction

1. The United Nations Convention on Independent Guarantees and Stand-by Letters of Credit was adopted and opened for signature by the General Assembly by its resolution 50/48 of 11 December 1995.¹ The Convention was prepared by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).²

    *     This note has been prepared by the secretariat of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) for informational purposes. It is not an official commentary on the Convention.

    ¹     The draft Convention was prepared by the Working Group on International Contract Practices at its thirteenth to twenty-third sessions. (For the reports of those sessions, see the following volumes of the UNCITRAL Yearbook: Yearbook, Volume XXI: 1990 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.91.V.6), document A/CN.9/330; Yearbook, Volume XXII: 1991 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.93.V.2), documents A/CN.9/342 and A/CN.9/345; Yearbook, Volume XXIII: 1992 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.V.7), documents A/CN.9/358 and A/CN.9/361; Yearbook, Volume XXIV: 1993 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.94.V.16), document A/CN.9/374 and Corr.1; Yearbook, Volume XXV: 1994(United Nations publication, Sales No. E.95.V.20), documents A/CN.9/388 and A/CN.9/391; and "Yearbook, volume XXVI: 1995" (to be issued subsequently as a United Nations sales publication), documents A/CN.9/405 and A/CN.9/408.) The deliberations of UNCITRAL on the draft Convention are reflected in the report on the work of its twenty-eighth session (1995) (Official Records of the General Assembly, Fiftieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/50/17), paras. 11-201), annex I of which contains the draft Convention as submitted by the Commission to the General Assembly.

    ²     UNCITRAL is an intergovernmental body of the General Assembly that prepares international commercial law instruments designed to assist the international community in modernizing and harmonizing laws dealing with international trade. Other legal instruments prepared by UNCITRAL include the following: United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, 10 March-11 April 1980 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.82.V.5), part I); Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods, 1974 (New York) (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on Prescription (Limitation) in the International Sale of Goods, New York, 20 May-14 June 1974 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.74.V.8), part I); United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978 (Hamburg) (Official Records of the United Nations Conference on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, Hamburg, 6-31 March 1978 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.80.VIII.1), document A/CONF.89/13, annex I); United Nations Convention on the Liability of Operators of Transport Terminals in International Trade (A/CONF.152/13, annex); UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-first Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/31/17), para. 57); UNCITRAL Notes on Organizing Arbitral Proceedings ("Yearbook, volume XXVIII: 1996" (to be issued subsequently as a United Nations sales publication), document A/CN.9/423); UNCITRAL Conciliation Rules (Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirty-fifth Session, Supplement No. 17(A/35/17), para. 106); Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (1985) (Official Records of the General Assembly, Fortieth Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/40/17, annex I); United Nations Convention on International Bills of Exchange and International Promissory Notes (General Assembly resolution 43/165, annex, of 9 December 1988); Model Law on International Credit Transfers (1992) (Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 17(A/47/17); annex I); UNCITRAL Model Law on Procurement of Goods, Construction and Services (1994) (Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-ninth Session, Supplement No. 17 and corrigendum (A/49/17 and Corr.1), annex I); and UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce (Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-first Session, Supplement No. 17 (A/51/17), annex I).

2. The Convention is particularly designed to facilitate the use of independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit where only one or the other of those instruments is traditionally in use. The Convention also solidifies recognition of common basic principles and characteristics shared by the independent guarantee and the stand-by letter of credit. In order to emphasize the common umbrella of rules provided for both independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit and to overcome divergences that may exist in terminology, the Convention uses the neutral term "undertaking" to refer to both types of instruments.

3. Independent undertakings covered by the Convention are basic tools of international commerce. They are used in a variety of situations. For example, they are used to secure performance of contractual obligations including construction, supply and commercial payment obligations; to secure repayment of an advance payment in the event that such repayment is required; to secure a winning bidder's obligation to enter into a procurement contract; to ensure reimbursement of payment under another undertaking; to support issuance of commercial letters of credit and insurance coverage; and to enhance creditworthiness of public and private borrowers. Yet familiarity with one or the other instrument covered by the Convention is not universal; there is an absence of legislative provisions dealing with them, practices concerning the two types of instruments have differed in certain respects, and important questions confronting users, practitioners and courts in the daily life of these instruments are beyond the power of the parties to settle contractually.

4. By establishing a harmonized set of rules for the two types of instruments covered, the Convention will provide greater legal certainty in their use for day-to-day commercial transactions, as well as marshal credit for public borrowers. Also, by making a single legal regime available to both independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit, the Convention will facilitate the issuance of both instruments in combination with each other, for example, the issuance of a stand-by letter of credit to support the issuance of a guarantee, or the reverse case. The Convention will further facilitate "syndications" of lenders, by allowing them to combine more easily both types of instruments. Lenders participating in a syndication can spread credit risk among themselves, which enables them to extend larger volumes of credit.

5. The Convention gives legislative support to the autonomy of the parties to apply agreed rules of practice such as the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP), formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), or other rules that may evolve to deal specifically with stand-by letters of credit, and the Uniform Rules for Demand Guarantees (URDG, also formulated by ICC). In addition to being essentially consistent with the solutions found in rules of practice, the Convention supplements their operation by dealing with issues beyond the scope of such rules. It does so in particular regarding the question of fraudulent or abusive demands for payment and judicial remedies in such instances. Furthermore, the deference of the Convention to the specific terms of independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit, including any rules of practice incorporated therein, enables the Convention to work in tandem with rules of practice such as UCP and URDG.

6. It should be noted that, strictly speaking, an independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit is an undertaking given to a beneficiary. Accordingly, the focus of the Convention is on the relationship between the guarantor (in the case of an independent guarantee) or the issuer (in the case of a stand-by letter of credit) (hereinafter referred to as "guarantor/issuer") and the beneficiary. The relationship between the guarantor/issuer and its customer (the principal, in the case of an independent guarantee, or the applicant, in the case of a stand-by letter of credit, hereinafter referred to as "principal/applicant") largely falls outside the scope of the Convention. The same may be said of the relationship between a guarantor/issuer and its instructing party (the instructing party being, for example, a bank, requesting, on behalf of its customer, the guarantor/issuer to issue an independent guarantee).

7. Provided below is a summary of the main features and provisions of the Convention.

I. SCOPE OF APPLICATION

A. Types of instruments covered

8. The scope of application of the Convention is confined to instruments of the type understood in practice as independent guarantees (referred to as, e.g. "demand", "first demand", "simple demand" or "bank" guarantees) or stand-by letters of credit (article 2(1)). Those instruments can be covered by the umbrella of the Convention because they share a wide area of common use. Both types of instruments, which are payable upon presentation of any stipulated documents, are used to secure against the possibility that some contingency may occur (e.g. a breach of a contract). It may be noted that another major use in particular of stand-by letters of credit is as an instrument to effectuate payment of mature indebtedness ("financial" or "direct pay" stand-by letters of credit).

9. In the undertakings covered by the Convention the guarantor/issuer promises to pay the beneficiary upon a demand for payment. The demand may, depending upon the terms of the undertaking, be either a "simple" demand or one having to be accompanied by the other documents called for in the guarantee or stand-by letter of credit. The guarantor/issuer's obligation to pay is triggered by the presentation of a demand for payment in the form, and with any supporting documents, as may be required by the independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit. The guarantor/issuer is not called on to investigate the underlying transaction, but is merely to determine whether the documentary demand for payment conforms on its face to the terms of the guarantee or stand-by letter of credit. Because of this characteristic the instruments covered by the Convention are referred to commonly as being "independent" and "documentary" in nature.

10. Reflecting practice, various types of scenarios are envisaged in which an undertaking may be given, including at the request of the customer ("principal/applicant"), on the instruction of another entity or person ("instructing party") acting at the request of the customer of the instructing party, or on behalf of the guarantor/issuer itself (article 2(2)).

11. Full freedom is given to the parties to exclude completely the coverage of the Convention (article 1), with the result that another law becomes applicable. Since the Convention, if it is applicable, is to a large extent suppletive rather than mandatory, wide breadth is given to exclude or alter the rules of the Convention in any given case.

B. Coverage of counter-guarantees and confirmations

12. The Convention is designed to include coverage of the "counter-guarantee". A counter-guarantee is defined in the Convention (article 6(c)) in the same essential terms as the basic notion of "undertaking", namely, as an undertaking given to the guarantor/issuer of another undertaking by its instructing party and providing for payment upon simple demand or upon demand accompanied by other documents, in conformity with the terms and any documentary conditions of the undertaking (counter-guarantee).

13. Apart from this general treatment of counter-guarantees as "undertakings", the Convention provides a specific provision on counter-guarantees in the context of fraudulent or abusive demands for payment; in that context counter-guarantees may raise questions distinct from those raised by other undertakings covered by the Convention (see paragraph 48, below).

14. The Convention also includes in its scope confirmations of undertakings, i.e. an undertaking added to that of, and authorized by, the guarantor/issuer. A confirmation gives the beneficiary an option of demanding payment from the confirmer as an alternative to demanding payment from the guarantor/issuer. By requiring authorization of the guarantor/issuer, the Convention does not recognize as confirmations "silent" confirmations, i.e. confirmations added without the assent of the guarantor/issuer.

C. Instruments outside scope of Convention

15. The Convention does not apply to "accessory" or "conditional" guarantees, i.e. guarantees in which the payment obligation of the guarantor involves more than the mere examination of a documentary demand for payment. Thus, the Convention does not annul or affect such other instruments in any way, nor does it regulate or discourage their use in any way. Whether it would be preferable to use in any given case an independent undertaking of the type covered by the Convention, or another type of instrument, would depend on the commercial circumstances at play and the particular interests of the parties involved.

16. Letters of credit other than stand-by letters of credit are not covered by the Convention. However, the Convention does recognize a right of parties to international letters of credit other than stand-by letters of credit to "opt into" the Convention (article 1(2)). That provision has been included in particular because the Convention provides a set of rules that parties to commercial letters of credit may wish in their own judgement to take advantage of, in view of the broad common ground between commercial and stand-by letters of credit, and in view of the occasional difficulties in determining whether a letter of credit is of a stand-by or commercial variety.

D. Definition of "independence"

17. While it is widely recognized that undertakings of the type covered by the Convention are "independent", there has been a lack of uniformity internationally in the understanding and recognition of that essential characteristic. The Convention will promote such uniformity by providing a definition of "independence" (article 3). That definition is phrased in terms of the undertaking not being dependent upon the existence or validity of the underlying transaction, or upon any other undertaking. The latter reference, to other undertakings, clarifies the independent nature of a counter-guarantee from the guarantee that it relates to and of a confirmation from the stand-by letter of credit or independent guarantee that it confirms.

18. In addition, to fall within the scope of the Convention, an undertaking must not be subject to any terms or conditions not appearing in the undertaking. It is specified that, to fall within the Convention, an undertaking should not be subject to any future, uncertain act or event, with the exception of presentation of a demand and other documents by the beneficiary or of any other such act or event that falls within the "sphere of operations" of the guarantor/issuer. That is in line with the notion that the role of the guarantor/issuer in the case of independent undertakings is one of paymaster rather than investigator.

E. "Documentary" character of undertakings covered

19. As an adjunct to being "independent" from the underlying transaction, the undertakings covered by the Convention possess a "documentary" character. This means that the duties of the guarantor/issuer when faced with a demand for payment are limited to examining the demand for payment and any supporting documents to ascertain whether the demand and other documents submitted conform "facially" with what is called for under the terms of the independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit. The effect of this rule is that undertakings possessing "non-documentary conditions" are outside the scope of the Convention. The only conditions which would not have to be documentary in nature would relate to acts or events within the sphere of operations of the guarantor/issuer. A simple example of the latter would be a determination by the guarantor/issuer as to whether a required monetary deposit had been made in a designated account maintained with that guarantor/issuer.

F. Definition of internationality

20. The Convention limits its application to undertakings that are international. Internationality is determined on the basis of the places of business, as specified in the undertaking, of any two of the following being in different States: guarantor/issuer, beneficiary, principal/applicant, instructing party, confirmer (article 4(1)). Special rules are provided for the case of an undertaking listing more than one place of business for a party, as well as for the case of a party not having a "place of business" as such, but only a habitual residence (article 4(2)).

G. Connecting factors for application of the Convention

21. The Convention applies to international undertakings in either one of two ways. The first way is linked to the location of the guarantor/issuer in a State party to the Convention ("Contracting State") (article 1(1)(a)). The second way in which the Convention applies is if the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State (article 1(1)(b)).

22. The Convention provides an additional layer of harmonization of law in this field, in that its chapter VI (Conflict of laws, articles 21 and 22) supplies the rules to be followed by courts of Contracting States in identifying in any given case the law applicable to an independent guarantee or a stand-by letter of credit. Those rules apply whether or not in a particular case it turns out that the Convention is the applicable substantive law for the independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit in question (see paragraphs 52 and 53, below).

II. INTERPRETATION

23. The Convention contains a general rule that interpretation of the Convention should be with a view to its international character and the need to promote uniformity in its application (article 5). In addition, interpretation is to have regard for the observance of good faith in international practice. Abstracts of any court decisions or arbitral awards applying and interpreting a provision of the Convention will be included in the case collection system called case law on UNCITRAL texts (CLOUT).

III. FORM AND CONTENT OF UNDERTAKING

24. The Convention provides rules on several aspects of the form and content of undertakings, as summarized below.

A. Issuance

25. On the question of the point of time and place of issuance (i.e. when and where the obligations of the guarantor/issuer to the beneficiary become operative), the Convention promotes certainty in an area traditionally of some uncertainty owing to the existence of differing notions. The Convention rule is that issuance occurs when and where the undertaking leaves the sphere of control of the guarantor/issuer (e.g. when it is sent to the beneficiary)(article 7(1)). In addition, the Convention defines issuance in terms of its practical effect. Once issued, the undertaking is available for payment in accordance with its terms and is irrevocable.

26. As is customary in legal texts of UNCITRAL, the Convention establishes a flexible and forward-looking form requirement for issuance. By requiring a form that preserves a complete record of the text of the undertaking, rather than referring to "written" form, the Convention accommodates issuance in a non-paper-based medium (e.g. by means of electronic data interchange). It does so by referring to issuance in any form that preserves a complete record of the text of the undertaking and provides a generally acceptable or specifically agreed means of authentication (article 7(2)).

27. The Convention does not deal with the question of capacity to issue undertakings (i.e. who is permitted to be a guarantor/issuer). That question, which raises regulatory or other legal implications that differ from country to country, is left to national law.

B. Amendment

28. Legislative recognition is given by the Convention to the rule of practice that amendment of an undertaking requires acceptance by the beneficiary in order to take effect, unless it is otherwise stipulated (article 8(3)). The Convention takes cognizance of the possibility that an amendment might be authorized in advance by the beneficiary. In such cases, the amendment takes effect upon issuance (article 8(2)).

29. In one of the few provisions of the Convention that directly addresses the relationship between the principal/applicant and the guarantor/issuer, it is made clear that an amendment has no effect on the rights and obligations of the principal/applicant, or for that matter of an instructing party or of a confirmer, unless such other person consents to the amendment (article 8(4)).

C. Transfer and assignment

30. The Convention reflects the distinction drawn in practice between, on the one hand, transfer to another person of the original beneficiary's right to demand payment and, on the other hand, assignment of the proceeds of the undertaking, if payment is made. In the case of assignment of proceeds, as contrasted with transfer, the right to demand payment remains with the original beneficiary, the assignee being given only the right to receive the proceeds of payment if such payment occurs.

31. Regarding transfer, the Convention endorses the dual requirement, found in UCP, that the undertaking itself must state that it is transferable, and that, in addition, any actual transfer must be consented to by the guarantor/issuer (article 9). The rationale is that a change in the person who is to present the demand for payment and any accompanying documents may increase the risk assumed by the guarantor/issuer (e.g. if the guarantor/issuer would feel that the proposed transferee was less reliable or familiar than the originally designated beneficiary). For that reason guarantor/issuers are given the opportunity to consent to any given transfer.

32. Regarding assignment of proceeds, the beneficiary of the undertaking may, unless otherwise stipulated in the undertaking or elsewhere agreed, assign the proceeds (article 10(1)). If the beneficiary assigns the proceeds and if the guarantor/issuer or another person obliged to effect payment has received a notice originating from the beneficiary, payment to the assignee discharges the obligor, to the extent of its payment, from liability under the undertaking (article 10(2)).

D. Cessation of right to demand payment

33. The Convention gives legislative effect to notions of cessation of the right to demand payment that are widely followed in practice, though not yet universally recognized in national laws or judicial precedents. Under the Convention (article 11), the events that trigger cessation include: a statement by the beneficiary releasing the guarantor/issuer; a termination of the undertaking agreed by the guarantor/issuer; full payment of the amount stipulated in the undertaking, unless the undertaking provided for automatic renewal or increase of the amount available; expiry of the validity period of the undertaking. By affirming that the presentation of the demand for payment has to occur prior to the expiry of the undertaking, the Convention will help to overcome any remaining uncertainty as to that question.

34. A degree of uncertainty still surrounds, in some jurisdictions, the question of the effect of retention of the instrument embodying the undertaking as regards definitive cessation of the right to demand payment. The Convention, in line with what is regarded widely as the best practice, provides that in no case does retention of the instrument prolong the right to demand payment if the amount available has already been paid or if the undertaking has expired (article 11(2)). Apart from those two contexts, the parties remain free to stipulate a requirement of return of the undertaking in order to terminate the right to demand payment.

E. Expiry

35. The Convention provides (article 12) that the validity period of an undertaking expires in the following ways: at the expiry date, which may be a fixed date or the last day of a fixed period stipulated in the undertaking; if expiry is linked to the occurrence of an act or event, upon presentation of the document called for in the undertaking to indicate the occurrence of the act or event, or, if no such document is called for, by presentation by the beneficiary of certification for that purpose; or after six years from issuance, if no expiry date has been stipulated or if a stipulated expiry act or event has not occurred.

IV. RIGHTS, OBLIGATIONS AND DEFENCES

A. Determination of rights and obligations

36. The rights and obligations of the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary are determined by the terms and conditions of the undertaking (article 13(1)). Express reference is made in the Convention to rules of practice, general conditions or usages (e.g. UCP, URDG) to which the undertaking is specifically made subject. This is in line with a main purpose of the Convention, to give legislative support to the right of commercial parties to incorporate such rules of practice, conditions or usages. That approach ensures that the Convention will remain a living instrument, sensitive to developments in practice, including future revisions of rules of practice such as UCP and URDG and the development of other international rules of practice.

37. The flexible linking of the Convention to the needs and evolving usages and standards of commercial practice is also referred to elsewhere in the Convention. For example, in the interpretation of the terms and conditions of an undertaking and in settling questions not addressed by the Convention, regard is to be had to generally accepted international rules and usages of independent guarantee or stand-by letter of credit practice (article 13(2)).

38. Similarly, the standard of conduct of the guarantor/issuer, based on good faith and the exercise of reasonable care, is to be defined by reference to generally accepted standards of international practice of independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit (article 14(1)). While the Convention leaves open the possibility of stipulating a standard somewhat lower than the generally applicable standard of care, it clearly prohibits any exemption of the guarantor from liability for lack of good faith or gross negligence.

B. Demand by beneficiary

39. As regards the beneficiary, the process of demanding and obtaining payment involves presenting a demand for payment and any accompanying documents in accordance with the terms of the undertaking. In view of the documentary character of the demand, the form requirements of the Convention applicable to the undertaking itself (see paragraph 27, above) apply to the demand (article 15(1)). The place of presentation is at the counters of the guarantor/issuer at the place of issuance, unless some other place or person is stipulated for payment purposes (article 15(2)).

40. In addition, the Convention provides (article 15(3)) that by virtue of making a demand the beneficiary implicitly certifies that the demand is not made in bad faith and that none of the circumstances exist that would justify non-payment in accordance with the provisions of the Convention on fraudulent or abusive demands for payment (see paragraphs 47 and 48, below).

C. Examination of demand and payment

41. The duty of the guarantor/issuer is to examine the demand and any accompanying documents to determine whether they are in facial conformity with the terms and conditions of the undertaking and consistent with one another (article 16(1)). That determination is to have due regard to the applicable standard of international practice, a formulation that ensures that the Convention takes account of developments in practice as regards the notion of facial conformity.

42. In a provision expressly subject to variation by the terms of the undertaking, the guarantor/issuer is given a "reasonable time", up to a maximum of seven days, to examine the demand and to decide whether to pay (article 16(2)). Thus, what is deemed a "reasonable time" may well be less than seven days, but in no case more than seven days, unless some different period is stipulated. This takes into account that the time needed for examination of the demand would depend upon the nature of each case (e.g. volume and complexity of documents to be examined).

43. If a decision is taken not to pay, the guarantor/issuer is required to promptly so notify the beneficiary, indicating the grounds therefor (article 16(2)). If the demand is determined to be conforming, payment is to be made promptly, or at any later time stipulated in the undertaking.

44. The Convention recognizes that the guarantor/issuer may, unless the undertaking provides otherwise, discharge the payment obligation by exercising a right of set-off that is generally available under the applicable law (article 18). However, the Convention does not recognize any such right of set-off with respect to claims assigned by the principal/applicant or instructing party, as such a possibility would risk undermining the purpose of the undertaking.

D. Fraudulent or abusive demands for payment

45. A main purpose of the Convention is to establish greater uniformity internationally in the manner in which guarantor/issuers and courts respond to allegations of fraud or abuse in demands for payment under independent guarantees and stand-by letters of credit. That has been a particularly troublesome and disruptive area in practice because allegations of fraud have a tendency to arise when there is a dispute as to the performance of an underlying contractual obligation. That difficulty and the resulting uncertainty have been compounded further because of the divergent notions and ways with which such allegations have been treated both by guarantor/issuers and by courts approached for provisional measures to block payment.

46. The Convention helps to ameliorate the problem by providing an internationally agreed general definition of the types of situations in which an exception to the obligation to pay against a facially compliant demand would be justified (article 19(1)). The definition encompasses fact patterns covered in different legal systems by notions such as "fraud" or "abuse of right". The definition refers to situations in which it is manifest and clear that any document is not genuine or has been falsified, that no payment is due on the basis asserted in the demand or that the demand has no conceivable basis.

47. For additional precision, the Convention provides illustrative examples of cases in which a demand would be deemed to have no conceivable basis (article 19(2); e.g. the underlying obligation has been undoubtedly fulfilled to the satisfaction of beneficiary; the fulfilment of the underlying obligation clearly has been prevented by wilful misconduct of beneficiary; in the case of a demand under a counter-guarantee, the beneficiary of the counter-guarantee has made payment in bad faith as guarantor/issuer of the undertaking to which the counter-guarantee relates).

48. The Convention, by entitling but not imposing a duty on the guarantor/issuer, as against the beneficiary, to refuse payment when confronted with fraud or abuse (article 19(1)), strikes a balance between different interests and considerations at play. By allowing discretion to the guarantor/issuer acting in good faith, the Convention is sensitive to the concern of guarantor/issuers over preserving the commercial reliability of undertakings as promises that are independent from underlying transactions.

49. At the same time, the Convention affirms that the principal/applicant, in the situations referred to, is entitled to provisional court measures to block payment (article 19(3)). This recognizes that it is the proper role of courts, and not of guarantors/issuers, to investigate the facts of underlying transactions. Furthermore, the Convention does not annul any rights that the principal/applicant may have in accordance with its contractual relationship with the guarantor/issuer to avoid reimbursement of payment made in contravention of the terms of that contractual relationship.

V. PROVISIONAL COURT MEASURES

50. Apart from entitling a principal/applicant or an instructing party to provisional court measures blocking payment or freezing proceeds of an undertaking in the types of cases referred to above, the Convention establishes a standard of proof to be met in order to obtain such provisional measures (article 20(1)). That standard refers to ordering of provisional measures on the basis of immediately available strong evidence of a high probability that the fraudulent or abusive circumstances are present. Reference is also made to consideration of whether the principal/applicant would be likely to suffer serious harm in the absence of the provisional measures and to the possibility of the court requiring security to be posted.

51. While authorizing provisional court measures in the cases concerned, the Convention minimizes the use of judicial procedures to interfere in undertakings by limiting the granting of provisional court measures to those types of cases, with one additional type of case. Provisional court orders blocking payment or freezing proceeds are also authorized in the case of use of an undertaking for a criminal purpose (article 20(3)).

VI. CONFLICT OF LAWS

52. As noted above (paragraph 22), the Convention contains in chapter VI conflict of law rules to be applied by the courts of Contracting States in order to identify the law applicable to international undertakings as defined in article 2, regardless of whether in any given case the Convention itself would prove to be the applicable law. Those conflict of laws rules recognize a choice of law stipulated in the undertaking or demonstrated by its terms or conditions, or agreed elsewhere by the guarantor/issuer and the beneficiary (article 21).

53. In the absence of a choice of law as described above, the Convention provides for application to the undertaking of the law of the State where the guarantor/issuer has that place of business at which the undertaking was issued (article 22).

VII. FINAL CLAUSES

54. The final clauses (articles 23-29) contain the usual provisions relating to the Secretary-General of the United Nations as depositary and providing that the Convention is subject to ratification, acceptance or approval by those States that have signed it by 11 December 1997, that it is open to accession by all States that are not signatory States and that the text is equally authentic in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.

55. In view of its largely suppletive character, as well as of the right of parties to exclude the Convention in its entirety, no reservations are permitted. The Convention enters into force one year from the date of deposit of the fifth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.

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